Reliability and Validity Matrix

TEST of Reliability | Application and APPROPRIATENESS| Strengths| Weaknesses| Internal Consistency| This measure of reliability is appropriate when trying to determine the difference in reliability from shortening or lengthening a test (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010). Here I am specifically referring to the Spearman-Brown formula being used to determine internal consistency. A researcher could also use other measures of internal consistency meant for heterogeneous test items, such as Inter-item consistency. The reliability of a test increases with an increase in the number of test items. One of the strengths of the Spearman-Brown Formula is that is can determine how much more or less reliable a test is as a researcher lengthens or shortens the test. This measure can also work in reverse and tell a researcher how many items they need to add to reach a certain reliability coefficient. | The problem with the use of the Spearman-Brown formula to determine internal consistency is that it is only affective with homogenous test items, that is items that are the same difficulty and length.Also, tests of reliability are higher for whole-test vs. half-test applications of the formula, which means that lengthier tests work better with this instrument. | Split-half| The split-half form of measuring reliability entails creating two halves in the same test that can be compared in the same manner as the parallel form of reliability testing uses. This type of measurement is appropriate when using odd-even reliability or random assignment splits, but is most applicable when designing mini-parallel forms of the same test.In this instance, each half is, â€Å"†¦as nearly equal as humanly possible—in format, stylistic, statistical, and related aspects† (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010, p. 145). | The strength of this kind of measure is that it is less time-consuming and less cumbersome for test-takers than the parallel form, but is also a good measure of internal consistency. T his type of measurement also help keep in check intermediary variables that might introduce error variance into the analysis, since the both parallel portions of the test are taken at once. However, there are several intermediary variables that are enhanced by this form of measuring reliability: fatigue that is felt during the second part of the test but not the first and variance in the difficulty or content of the items in the first half vs. the second half. It is also not advised to simply split a test down the middle. The different halves should have the same content and difficulty of question for the measure of reliability to be accurate. Test/retest| This type of test is applicable when the construct being measured is relatively stable over time, but is inappropriate for constructs that are not stable over time (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010). This is because test/retest reliability is based on taking the same test, with the same people, at two different times. If the construct being measured is purported to change over time, then the scores of the test would vary because of true variance, rather than error variance—which is the basis of reliability, the latter that is. An example of this principle might be an achievement test measuring grammatical skills.If the test-taker undergoes a series of lessons on grammar between the first test and the second test, then the test will show variance, but not due to error but due to the intermediary variable of education. Test/retest reliability would be inappropriate in this situation. | The strength of this measurement of reliability are in tests that, â€Å"†¦employ outcome measures such as reaction time or perceptual judgment† (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010, p. 143). This is because these types of psychometric traits do not vary greatly over time and are not sensitive to many types of intervening variable. The weakness of test/retest reliability is, of course, that the underlying constructs being tested can change over time, and therefore lower the test/retest reliability due to true variance rather than error variance. In this case, the overall reliability of a test might be seen as lower even though the actual measurement of the construct is stable (it is just that the construct itself varies). | Parallel and alternate forms| Both parallel and alternative forms of test reliability utilize multiple instances of the same test items at two different times with the same participants (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010).These types of measures of reliability would be most appropriate with tests that measure traits that are stable over a long period of time and inappropriate when measuring finite emotional states or anxiety levels. | The strength of this measure of reliability is that it measures the core construct through several variances of the same test item. If equivalent scores are found on multiple forms of the same test item, then the reliability of the test will go up. Moreover, there are wa ys to perform this type of reliability analysis without having the test-taker undergo multiple examinations: internal onsistency estimate of reliability. This type of analysis would save time and money. | Designing these types of measures are time-consuming, expensive, and tiresome for the test-taker who has to take variations of the same test items over and over again. Also, these forms of testing reliability are not dependable for measuring constructs that change over time, such as anxiety levels. Another weakness is that if the tests are taken some time apart, then intervening variables might have an effect on the scores, thereby increasing error variance. Test of Validity| Application and APPROPRIATENESS| Strengths| Weaknesses| Face validity| Face validity is a description of the subjective perception of the test-taker of the test’s validity (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010). This measure is not so much a quantification of the test’s actual validity, but a measure of the te st-taker’s perception of the test’s validity. Face validity is most appropriate when measuring the test-takers confidence that a test measures what it purports to measure. The strength of face validity is that if the test-taker has confidence in the validity of test, then they are more likely to take the test, and further the test user is more likely to administer the test. Without face validity, the test might be perfectly valid, but it is not administered or taken properly because the user/taker does not have confidence in the test. | The weakness of face validity is that it might not measure actual validity. A test can appear to be valid to the user/taker while also being completely invalid for the construct/time/place of the test.A good example might be the inkblot test. Psychologists that adhere to the psychodynamic perspective of psychopathology would say that the test is perfectly valid for determining personality characteristics, but the test taker might not un derstanding how the test applies to personality development, thereby undermining the face validity of the test. | Content validity| Measures of content validity are most useful in situations a test designer is trying to create test items that match the content of the material being tested (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010).For instance, a final course exam should test the content area that the course covered. Further, this measure might not be applicable in situations where the skills that the test designer are looking for in the applicant are not currently part of the skill-set of the already employed, such as in cases of new positions. | One of the strengths of content validity is that it can used to work backwards from job responsibilities to job applicant requirements.First, the test designer would examine veteran workers perform their job, and then design an application process that looks for these qualities in a potential employee. The items that are judge essential for the job are the ones that are most advantageous for the applicant to possess. | The downfall of content validity is that the perspective of the material being covered is culturally and chronologically subjective, meaning that the questions can have different answers in different areas of the world or at different times.Therefore, the test items must be culturally and chronologically accurate for the test-takers for content validity to be used. | Criterion related| I know this is personal opinion, but I think that criterion-related validity is the most powerful of all of the methods of verifying validity—especially concurrent validity. This type of validity is used to verify that the criterion that the test score purports to represent is actually in the sample of individuals being tested (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010).For instance, a group of people who have already been diagnosed with schizophrenia could be tested using a new instruments and if they all score high on the test for schizophrenia, th en the test can be said to have acceptable validity. | One of the strengths of criterion-related validity is that it is a very powerful measure of the actual validity of a test score. This type of validity uses methods external to the test itself to verify that the test covers the subject matter and criterion that it purports to cover. This fact alone makes this measure the most objective and verifiable of the measures of validity. A weakness of content validity is that criterion contaminations can occur, which is when the same predictor measure and criterion measure are used. As an example, if the diagnosis of a mental disorder by a panel of diagnosticians is used both as the test criterion and the measure of test validity. | Construct| Construct validity is the umbrella under which all of the other sub-types of validity fall (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2010). Construct validity is appropriate to use in cases where a test is trying to measure some underlying construct, such as intelligence or anxiety.I suppose this measure of validity might not be appropriate in situations where there is not one clear construct that is being measured, such as generalized achievement tests. | One of the main strengths of construct validity is that the procedures used to verify underlying constructs follow the edicts of the scientific method. A hypothesis is formulated, predicting that if someone possesses in great quantity the construct of intelligences—as verified through other measures—then they will score high on a test purporting to measure intelligence.In this way, a predictions is made based on scientific facts and then the test is used to determine if the prediction holds true. If it does not, then the test items, predictions, or underlying construct might need to be revised. | The downfall of this measure of validity is that if there is not one clear construct or if the construct is vaguely defined, then the validity of the test score is not measurable. So, the va lidity of the test rests on the underlying construct definition and specificity. |

The goal of the present paper is to discuss the different and shared properties

The goal of the present paper is to discuss the different and shared properties of photography and film with reference to the use of photographs in the film Paris qui dort (also known as Le rayon de la mort in France, and Paris asleep or The crazy ray internationally) by Renà © Clair (shot in 1923, the premier in France took place in 1925, in the United States – in 1926).Anne Friedberg once characterised this particular movie as â€Å"a narrative built around the shift from photography to film.†[1]   This quote indicates a channel for the discourse on the topic, how the French filmmaker synthesised photographic and cinematographic means to create a complex visual tissue.To remind the plot of this earlier example of cinematic science fiction, the main hero of the film called Albert (Henri Rollan), who is the watchman at the Eiffel Tower, awakens one perfect day to discover that the whole city of Paris has been fallen asleep. While he strolls down the streets of the bu siest European metropolis, the character observes people having been paralysed in their routine affairs. During his journey Albert meets five persons who have just arrived to Paris by airplane: Hesta (Madeleine Rodrigue), a self-made young traveller, a multi-millionaire who came to visit his bride (Antoine Stacquet), a hook and a police detective (Marcel Vallà ©e and Louis Prà © Fils), and a pilot (Albert Prà ©jean).These six occasional fellows in misery spend the night on the top of the Eiffel Tower and swoop into the city the next day to amuse themselves at their best.Having returned back to their shelter with precious loot, Albert and company catch the SOS-signal on the radio. In result of a purposeful search, the adventurers arrive at the cellar laboratory of Dr. Crase, a talented yet frenzied scientist (Charles Martinelli). Miss Crase, the professor's niece and assistant, meets the newcomers and tells them an interesting story.It appears that Dr. Crase has invented a wonderf ul machine that could arrest time by its rays. When the scientist tested his invention, all the six heroes enjoying the moment â€Å"happened to be, at three twenty-five, the moment of immobilization, at an altitude beyond its reach.†[2] Dr Crase was talented enough to design the formula for freezing the course of life but forgot to devise an antidote. Upon persuasion, he corrects his mistake, and Paris is permitted to return back to the usual mode of life.The members of the warm company separate from each other. Albert finds himself accompanying Miss Crase. The young man likes the girl and decides to see her back to her place but finds no cash to pay for the cab. He decides to immobilise the city one more time to stock up on money for the rest of his life. Albert rushes to Dr. Crase’s laboratory and struggles with the professor over the machine’s levy. Depending on their movements, the life in Paris is either set still or resumed in mobility. The battle ends up with an explosion.The heroes of the movie try to explain to the police what has happened. Nobody believes them so far as the rest of the Parisians, who have fallen asleep, do not remember the period of immobilisation. Finally, Albert is almost persuaded that Dr. Crase and his invention have been just his nightmares. However, upon return to the Eiffel Tower hand-in-hand with Miss Crase, the hero finds a diamond ring in the aperture between the girders. It was one of the trophies that the merry gang brought from the journey across the frozen city. The ring makes Albert believe once again in the existence of immobilising rays.[3]Before deciphering Friedberg’s idea about Clair having synthesised the performative possibilities of photography and cinematography, and before sharing some original ideas, the author feels obliged to analyse the technical and cultural backgrounds of these two interrelated media.Researchers started investigating the semiotic value of photography as the precedent to cinematography as early as in the mid-19th century. At the dawn of invention, photography was perceived as a technique to make light â€Å"exert an action †¦ sufficient to cause changes in material bodies.†[4] The idea was expressed by Fox Talbot in a book The pencil of nature, published in 1844. Rosalind Krauss chose the treatise as a field for analysis to discuss a dynamics of symbolic complexity associated with photography throughout its development. Her discourse is especially interesting so far as it explores the earlier metaphysical values ascribed to photography in the 1840s and the most recent semiological explanations of this art.To summarise the section of Krauss’ article dealing with the earlier representations of photography, the latter was perceived as a complex phenomenon existing both at the physical and metaphysical layers. On the one hand, it was often compared to â€Å"the footprint that is left on sand.†[5]To put it different ly, a well-known light spectrum was refracted inside a photographic camera so that the representations of people and other animate and inanimate objects were imprinted on the plates and photographic paper. On the other hand, Talbot and his contemporaries were intrigued by â€Å"certain invisible rays† which let â€Å"the eye of the camera †¦ see plainly where the human eye would find nothing but darkness.†[6][1] A. Friedberg, Window shopping: cinema and the postmodern, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, USA, University of California Press, 1993, p. 102. [2] Miss Crase’s words, cited in A. Michelson, Dr. Crase and Mr. Clair, October, 11: Winter, 1979: p. 34. [3] A detailed summary of the movie plot is provided by Michelson, pp. 33-34. [4] W. Fox Talbot, The pencil of nature, facsimile edition, New York, Da Capo Press, 1969, introduction, n.p., cited in R. Krauss, Tracing Nadar, Photography, 5: Oct. 1978: p. 39. [5] Krauss, Tracing Nadar, p. 33. [6] Talbot, cited in Krauss, Tracing Nadar, p. 41.

Viscosity Lab Essay - 721 Words

Viscosity Science Lab Purpose: To determine of changing the viscosity will affect the time it takes for a marble to flow through a liquid. Hypothesis: If a marble is dropped into dish soap and corn syrup, than I predict that the marble in the dish soap will travel faster than the marble in the corn syrup because I know that the viscosity of the corn syrup is thicker than then the viscosity of the dish soap. Also, the particles in the corn syrup are more compact than those in the dish soap. This makes the marble sink faster in the dish soap than the corn syrup. Apparatus: * 2 identical marbles * 250 Graduated Cylinders of 250mL * 250mL of dish soap * 250mL of corn syrup * 1 timer/stopwatch Procedure: 1.†¦show more content†¦It is very difficult for large particles to move past each other unlike small, tiny particles, like those in the dish soap. The particles in the dish soap are very small and can move more freely and quickly. In the dish soap, the particles are very small and can move past each other easily when compared to the particles in the corn syrup. Another reason also contributed to the result of this experiment. Attraction. Some types of particles tend to attract more than others and that is exactly what happened in the corn syrup. The particles in the corn syrup attracted more than the dish soap. The large particles in the corn syrup held tightly to each other, that when the marble fell in that it made it hard for the marble to pass through more than one particle at a time. IN the dish soap, the particles did not attract as much as the corn syrup which let the marble move easily and quickly through the liquid. The strength of attraction as well as the particle size is important in determining a fluid’s viscosity. Application: This viscosity experiment can be used in real-life when making sun-tan lotion as well as other cosmetic products. It is important for the lotion to be viscous because the lotion could not be applied and spread around the body if the cream was not viscous enough to suit its use. It would drip all over you! It wouldn’t dry or stay in one place. Many well-known businesses hire highly educated scientists to calculate the right viscosity level and if it isShow MoreRelatedLab Report On Viscosity : Newtonian Vs. Non Newtonian Fluids1722 Words   |  7 Pages Laboratory Report 3 Viscosity: Newtonian vs. Non-Newtonian Fluids By Jennifer Blanchard Olivia George Todd Lynn Chantz Yanagida ENGR 3070L CRN: 47426 27 September 2017 Jacqueline H. 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There was one accident that involved the safety officer and the cross trainer that was there for the first lab period. Both the cross trainer and the safety officer were near the viscometer as they were both operating it. When the cross trainer finished utilizing the suction bulb, he was instructed by the team leader to begin recoding the density measurements. The cross trainer reached into theRead MoreEngineering Essay1377 Words   |  6 PagesSIMULATION (ECI 146) CRN 29727; 4 units INSTRUCTOR: Fabià ¡n A. 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Natural Law Theorists And Positivist Theorists - 1850 Words

To what degree are natural law theorists and positivist theorists accurate in terms of the idea that ‘an unjust law cannot be a valid law’? In this essay i will assess the accuracy of this statement and attempt to define the concept of the validity of law in relation to both natural law theorists and positivist theorists. For the purpose of this essay I will define validity of a law as †Having legal force; effective or binding† (The Free Dictionary). The main reason for the continual debate between both theories is that they are both very similar although they may appear to be at contrary ends of each spectrum. Natural law theorists believe that in order for a law to be valid it must have some moral principle therefore if laws which are enacted in statues have no authority, they are not moral. Whereas positivists support and emphasise the importance of a division between morality and law. I will begin by outlining both theories. I will then move onto asses the accuracy of the following statement, ‘An unjust law cannot be a valid law’ this includes establishing the similarities and differences of both theories; in order to do this effectively it is essential that a thorough understanding of both theories has been developed. Finally I will summarise my findings, An unjust law cannot be a valid law - true or false? The first question we need to address in order to be able to assess this statement is - what is natural law? The basic concept of natural law is that in order for aShow MoreRelatedLaw And Morality From The View Of Natural Law Theorists And Legal Positivists Essay1514 Words   |  7 PagesLaw and morality can be defined by the interpretation of the individual who is referring to it. If the natural law theorists interpret the connection between law and morality a certain way then legal positivists will interpret it another way. 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For the purpose of this essay I will define validity of a law as †Having legal force; effectiveRead MoreThe Theory Of Criminal Behavior1333 Words   |  6 Pagesunderstand the cause of criminal behavior and crime. Some examples of these theories are Classical Theory, Deterrence Theory, Positivist Theory, Strain Theory, and Social Learning Theory. The Classical Theory developed by Cesare Beccaria, introduces the idea of free will. Acknowledging people are capable of possessing free will introduces the freedom people have to choose to be a law abiding citizen or to be delinquent. The Classical Theory was derived from the Classical School which also included a theoryRead MoreMorality Vs. Morality : Morality And Morality1729 Words   |  7 PagesAlthough law and morality are two separate issues it is evident that morality plays a crucial role in the law. Dr. Jà ¼rgen Habermas stated â€Å"law is internally related†¦ to morality† . 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Benefits of Adoption - 940 Words

Adoption is a wonderful and rewarding way to grow a family. When you open your heart and house to a child through adoption, you make an everlasting commitment. It is an important decision that requires thought and discussion among the entire family. Adopting a child is without a doubt a life changing experience that requires patience and dedication. This experience allows families to change a child’s life who one day may have thought that they would never be loved. Parents who adopt from infertility have already felt what loss and disappointment feels like due to not being able to bear a child. Many times these same parents have experienced prior miscarriages or even unsuccessful fertility clinics. For them, the opportunity to adopt is a†¦show more content†¦Ultimately, they learn to be comfortable with themselves. (Child Dev 1984). In conclusion, adopting is absolutely something to consider. The most important thing to remember is that every child needs a safe and lo ving home. Any family who believes that they can provide security, love and safety to a child in need should consider taking this role. It is an unforgettable, life changing experience not only for the parent but for the child as well. Parents have the opportunity to provide that child a normal life which would otherwise be missing. Some researchers say that adopted children who were once in a foster care tend to misbehave or act a certain way in order to create a feeling of rejection, anger, pain and abandonment in their parents. This testing behavior may actually indicate that the child feels comfortable enough with the parent to communicate his or her own true feelings. (Welf Info Gateway 2012). This is a positive reaction which only solidifies the strong bond that parents will be able to attain with the new member of the family. The benefits of adopting are endless, and will only gain love in a child’s heart. Parents will absolutely bring tremendous joy to that childâ₠¬â„¢s life. One thing is true, and this is that no one will ever know unless they experience this. References http://ocfs.ny.gov/adopt/process.asp http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/09/nsap/chartbook/chartbook.cfm?id=28Show MoreRelatedThe Many Benefits of Adoption2071 Words   |  9 Pages When the average American citizen today thinks about the concept of adoption, what images are typically the first that come to mind? Although different people are sure to have equally as different experiences in this field, one picture continues to remain the most commonly-accepted. This image consists of a man and a woman who cannot have children of their own, a newborn baby, and a single mother who will certainly be unable to provide for the infant due to her young age, lack of financial supportRead MoreAdoption Is Not The Only Party Who Benefits From An Open Adoption1229 Words   |  5 PagesAn adoptee is not the only party who benefits from an open adoption. 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Goth and Death Music free essay sample

The artists present themselves from a lifeless position to display the pain women cause. Shes the blade and Im just paper a lyric from the band Sugarcoat, shows the emotion that the men place in their lyrics. The woman is the one that cuts him up; the woman is the one who is causing the problems. Security is an American rock band from Santa Barbara, California formed in 1998. The band currently consists of Tim Poignant who sings lead vocals, and plays rhythm attar, Airing Older who plays bass guitar, and sings backing vocals, Marko Descants who plays lead guitar, and Kenny Livingston who plays drums. We will write a custom essay sample on Goth and Death Music or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page A band that shows the portrayal of men as the victim in the game of love is Taking Back Sunday. Taking Back Sunday is a rock band from Imitatively, NY, formed in 1 999 by guitarist Eddie Rexes. Current members of the band are Adam Lazar who sings lead vocals, John Nolan who plays and sings lead guitar, back-up vocals, Eddie Rexes who plays rhythm guitar, Shawn Cooper who plays bass guitar and Mark OConnell who plays drums. They fit right in with normal Memo genre, preaching Dont call my name out your window Im leaving.Im sick of writing every song about you. Every time lead singer Adam sings this line he cries on stage. Have you ever heard of a genre of music so extreme it has been blamed for everything from the burning of churches to the murder of fellow band members? Well that music is commonly known as Death Metal. Because of the extreme measures set by the bands most of the bands are banned from not only touring in some countries but also from heir records being sold for being deemed too extreme for the general public. With music about death, Destruction and overthrowing popular religions, its not surprising that it is sometimes considered one of the most gruesome, heaviest and most explicit genres of metal. Lamb of God is an American death metal band from Richmond, Virginia. Formed in 1994, the group consists of vocalist Randy Blithe, guitarists Mark Morton, Willie Adler, bassist John Campbell, and drummer Chris Adler. The band is considered to be a part of the New Wave of American He. Y Metal movement.Since its formation, Lamb of God has released six studio albums, one live album, one compilation album and three DVDs. Lamb of God is an all-around metal band and sings more than death metal and for that reason I like them more the any other death metal band. Rather than other death metal bands such as My Dying Bride that sing only death metal. My Dying Bride whos band members are Aaron who sings vocals, Andrew and Hams who play the guitar, Lena who plays bass, and Shawn who plays both keyboard and violin.My Dying Bride was formed by Aaron, Andy, Calvin and Rick in the summer of 1 990, and after only six months of writing together released the now legendary demo Towards the Sinister. Progress continued apace with the release of their first seven single God Is Alone for the small French label Listenable. The single sold out almost immediately causing eager whispers in the underground, bringing them to the attention of Peaceable Records, who offered the band a deal. This band is disturbing and tasteless in my opinion and only sings this type of metal.

Writing Academic Paragraphs Essay Example

Writing Academic Paragraphs Paper University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS Writing Effective Paragraphs A paragraph should be unified, coherent, and well developed. Paragraphs are unified around a main point, and all sentences in the paragraph should clearly relate to that point in some way. The paragraphs main idea should be supported with specific information that develops or discusses the main idea in greater detail. Creating a Topic Sentence The topic sentence expresses the main point in a paragraph. You may create your topic sentence by considering the details or examples you will discuss. What unifies these examples? What do your examples have in common? Reach a conclusion and write that conclusion first. If it helps, think of writing backwardsfrom generalization to support instead of from examples to a conclusion. If you know what you main point will be, write that as clearly as possible. Then focus on key words in your topic sentence and try to explain them more fully. Keep asking yourself How? or Why? or What examples can I provide to convince a reader? . After you have added your supporting information, review the topic sentence to see that it still indicates the direction of your writing. Purposes of Topic Sentences †¢ †¢ †¢ We will write a custom essay sample on Writing Academic Paragraphs specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Writing Academic Paragraphs specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Writing Academic Paragraphs specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer To state the main point of a paragraph To give the reader a sense of direction (indicate what information will follow) To summarize the paragraphs main point Often appear as the first or second sentences of a paragraph Rarely appear at the end of the paragraph Placement of Topic Sentences †¢ †¢ Supporting a Topic Sentence with Details To support a topic sentence, consider some of the possible ways that provide details. To develop a paragraph, use one or more of these: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Add examples Tell a story that illustrates the point youre making Discuss a process Compare and contrast Use analogies (eg. X is similar to Y because. . . ) Discuss cause and effect Define your terms Reasons for beginning a new paragraph †¢ †¢ To show youre switching to a new idea To highlight an important point by putting it at the beginning or end of your paragraph 1 Source: Internet AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS To show a change in time or place To emphasize a contrast To indicate changing speakers in a dialogue To give readers an opportunity to pause To break up a dense text Ways of Arranging Information within or between paragraphs †¢ †¢ †¢ Order of time (chronology) Order of space (descriptions of a location or scene) Order of climax (building toward a conclusion) Order of importance (from least to most important or from most to least important) Writing Effective Paragraphs The Topic Sentence by S. Marques, Kentridge High School A paragraph is a group of sentences dealing with a single topic or idea. Usually, one sentence, called the topic sentence, states the main idea of the paragraph. All the other sentences are related to this topic sentence. They further explain or support the main idea. The Topic Sentences Function The topic sentence of a paragraph is like a contract between writer and reader. The writer is saying, in effect, I have an idea I want to explain to you. The reader is answering, All right, explain it to me. For the writer to hold to the contract, he or she must explain the idea stated in the topic sentence. Therefore, the topic sentence controls the content of the paragraph. Judging Topic Sentences A topic sentence makes a general statement that is wider in its scope than the rest of the sentences in the paragraph. A good topic sentence is broad enough to be developed by specific details. However, if a topic sentence is too general, the remainder of the paragraph will have to be either extremely long in order to give an adequate explanation of the idea, or it will have to contain nothing but more general statements. A topic sentence can be evaluated by asking a few questions. 1. Does the topic sentence present oneand only onetopic? 2. Is the topic sentence an overgeneralization? 3. Does the sentence give strong direction to the whole paragraph? Usually, it is difficult to say that a topic sentence is good or bad. It is possible, however, to say that one topic sentence is better than another. AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 2 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS Placement of the Topic Sentence In general, a sensible plan is to tell readers what the paragraph is intended to discuss before it is discussed. Thus, the common practice in writing a paragraph is to begin with the topic sentence and to follow it with supporting sentences. The topic sentence serves the special purpose of announcing the paragraphs topic. Using this approach to placement of the topic sentence, the reader can more easily identify the central point that the writer is making. Developing Paragraphs Well developed paragraphs support their topic sentences with concrete details, lively examples and illustrations, or well developed, clearly worded arguments. The relation between the specific, concrete detailsthe facts you are basing your opinion onand your opinion must be clearly spelled out for your reader. Forms of Supporting Material In order to hold your readers attention, you must give them something worth reading. Essays containing paragraphs that are not adequately developed simply waste your readers time. Therefore, so as to keep your audience, you must bring in enough specific detail to keep the reading interesting. In fact, your goal should be to capture on paper your memories (narration), mental images (description), or reasoning processes (exposition and argumentation) in such a carefully detailed and ordered fashion that your readers cannot help but recreate the mental images or reasoning processes in their own minds. There are a number of different ways in which you can develop a paragraph. The most common are explained below. Explanation An explanation is an attempt at making a term, concept, process, or proposal clear and intelligible. An explanation may show the relationship between the whole and its parts. Often, explanation is followed by a specific example or illustration. Comparison and Contrast Comparison attempts to help the reader understand a new concept by likening it to one that the reader already knows. Contrast may be used to explain how the new concept is different from the old one, how it has its own identity. Comparison and contrast may be used alone or in combination. In the examples below, X indicates the new concept while Y represents the familiar concept: †¢ Comparison used alone is really analogy. Analogies often take the form of X is like Y in that . . . . †¢ Contrast is often used to differentiate between two closely related or outwardly similar ideas. 3 Source: Internet AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS Sometimes contrast is used to describe something by explaining what it is not. Contrast sometimes take the form of Unlike Y, X does not . . . . †¢ Comparison and Contrast together are very often the best way to convey a new idea to your readers, relating the new idea to something your readers are already familiar with and then explaining how it is NOT the same as that more familiar concept. Keep in mind that neither comparison nor contrast will work if you are not relating the new concept to one that your readers already understand. Therefore, it is important to define your audience and know who they are and what they care about. Illustration, specific instance and example An illustration is a narrative example, a story exemplifying the idea that you are trying to express. An illustration should have concrete details, all of which support the main idea you are expressing. Unlike specific instances and examples, which are usually conveyed in one sentence or sometimes in just a phrase, illustrations may make up an entire paragraph. Illustrations may be factualrecounting a true storyor hypothetical. Hypothetical illustrations present a possible event that could happen in the future if certain actions are not taken or convey a possible scenario that could have happened in the past if certain actions had not been taken. To be effective, illustrations, examples, and specific instances must be †¢ †¢ †¢ clearly related to the idea in your writing that you are trying to support reasonable and realistic, not the exception, not science fiction vivid in detail Choose your illustrations, specific instances, and examples carefully, applying the above criteria. Statistics Statistics are figures that show trends in the population. Statistics from surveys often indicate how different segments of the population differ from each other in opinion. In addition, statistics can indicate such tendencies as how people react to a new drug, which segment of the population has the greatest tendency toward a certain illness, and what the most common manner of death is for particular segments of the population. Statistics can help you to support your opinion by showing how great a problem is in the population in general or in a segment of the population or by indicating trends across time. Authoritative opinion and personal testimony Another way to support your thesis or topic sentence is through the use of authoritative opinion or personal testimony. A person qualifies as an authority on a subject either through depth of education AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 4 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS or through depth of experience, preferably both. Thus, the PhD in Sociology may be an authority on poverty through years of field research and reading in the discipline, but the woman who has reared her children successfully despite an income below the poverty line is also an authority on poverty. In rder for the authoritatave opinion or expert testimony to be acceptable to your audience and an effective method of support for your main idea, you must establish the following for your audience: 1. The person whose opinion or testimony you are using qualifies as an expert. 2. The information is based on your experts first-hand knowledge. (If your expert cites another source, try to go to that original source. ) NOTE: A well developed topic sentence paragraph will be much longer than most of the paragraphs you are reading on these web pages. Writing for the Internet is usually very different from traditional academic writing. For example, on the Internet, you will find capital letters in odd places for emphasis. ) One primary difference in these two types of writing lies in the length of paragraphs. Paragraphs tend to be much shorter in e-mail messages and on web pages. In your final drafts for this class, you should write fully developed paragraphs, which are at least eight sentences long. I do not generally care for counting words, pages, or sentences in student writing, but for paragraph development, Ive found that fewer than eight sentences generally do not constitute a well developed paragraph according to academic writing standards. On the other hand, having eight sentences in a paragraph does not assure that you have a fully developed paragraph. Paragraph development always refers to content, but chances are good that, if a paragraph looks skimpy on the page, it probably is underdeveloped. Paragraph Development: Coordination and Subordination of Details Effective paragraphs include specific facts and details that support the main idea. Since the details are more specific than the main idea, they are considered subordinate to it. But the details themselves may be equally specific. If so, we say that they are coordinate. However, some details may be more specific than others. A detail that is more specific than another is considered subordinate to it. Thus, all the details in a paragraph are subordinate to the main ideas, but some details are coordinate (equal to others), and some are subordinate to others (more specific than others). Coordinate Details One way to develop the main idea of a paragraph is to use all coordinate, or equally specific, details. For example, the supporting details in the paragraph below are coordinate. (1) Mexico offers visitors a world of contrasts. (2) Its pyramids and ancient ruins give us a glimpse of he past while its modern cities provide us with the best of todays technology. (3) Its mountains offer cool weather and majestic peaks while, only a few miles away, its beaches tempt us with brilliant sun and white sand. (4) Its elegant restaurants serve the most sophisticated continental cuisine while, across the street or down the block, sidewalk vendors sell the simples t of native foods. (5) Thus the traveler to Mexico is faced with a series of delightful decisions. AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 5 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS In this paragraph, the main idea, which is stated in sentence (1), is supported by three equally specific, or coordinate, supporting details: sentences (2), (3), and (4). Sentence (5) concludes the paragraph and reinforces the main idea. This paragraph can be diagrammed as shown below. Main idea (sentence 1) Coordinate detail (sentence 2) Coordinate detail (sentence 3) Coordinate detail (sentence 4) Conclusion (sentence 5) (1) Mexico offers visitors a world of contrasts. (2) Its pyramids and ancient ruins give us a glimpse of the past while its modern cities provide us with the best of todays technology. 3) Its mountains offer cool weather and majestic peaks while, only a few miles away, its beaches tempt us with brilliant sun and white sand. (4) Its elegant restaurants serve the most sophisticated continental cuisine while, across the street or down the block, sidewalk vendors sell the simplest of native foods. (5) Thus the traveler to Mexico is faced with a series of delightful dec isions. Developing Unified and Coherent Paragraphs A paragraph is unified when every sentence develops the point made in the topic sentence . It must have a single focus and it must contain no irrelevant facts. Every sentence must contribute to the paragraph by explaining, exemplifying, or expanding the topic sentence. In order to determine whether a paragraph is well developed or not, ask yourself: What main point am I trying to convey here? (topic sentence) and then Does every sentence clearly relate to this idea? There are several ways in which you can build good, clear paragraphs. This section will discuss three of the most common types of paragraph structure: development by detail, comparison and contrast, and process. Finally, it will suggest that most paragraphs are built of a combination of development strategies. Paragraph Development by Details This is the most common and easiest form of paragraph development: you simply expand on a general topic sentence using specific examples or illustrations. Look at the following paragraph (you may have encountered it before): Work tends to be associated with non-work-specific environments, activities, and schedules. If asked what space is reserved for learning, many students would suggest the classroom, the lab or the library. What about the kitchen? The bedroom? In fact, any room in which a student habitually studies becomes a learning space, or a place associated with thinking. Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity before they can work successfully. Being sedentary seems to inspire others. Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some students do their best work before the sun rises, some after it sets. Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very few can sit and not rise until their task is completed. Some students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot produce anything AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 6 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS without much dust and heat. The topic sentence makes a general claim: that school work tends not to be associated only with school. The rest of the sentences provide various illustrations of this argument. They are organised around the three categories, environment, activities, and schedules, enumerated in the topic sentence. The details provide the concrete examples which your reader will use to evaluate the credibility of your topic sentence. Paragraph Development by Comparison and Contrast You should consider developing your paragraph by comparison and contrast when you are describing two or more things which have something, but not everything, in common. You may choose to compare either point by point (X is big, Y is little; X and Y are both purple. ) or subject by subject (X is big and purple; Y is small and purple. ). Consider, for example, the following paragraph: Although the interpretation of traffic signals may seem highly standardized, close observation reveals regional variations across this country, distinguishing the East Coast from Central Canada and the West as surely as dominant dialects or political inclinations. In Montreal, a flashing red traffic light instructs drivers to careen even more wildly through intersections heavily populated with pedestrians and oncoming vehicles. In startling contrast, an amber light in Calgary warns drivers to scream to a halt on the off chance that there might be a pedestrian within 500 meters who might consider crossing at some unspecified time within the current day. In my home town in New Brunswick, finally, traffic lights (along with painted lines and posted speed limits) do not apply to tractors, all terrain vehicles, or pickup trucks, which together account for most vehicles on the road. In fact, were any observant Canadian dropped from an alien space vessel at an unspecified intersection anywhere in this vast land, he or she could almost certainly orient him-or-herself according to the surrounding traffic patterns. This paragraph compares traffic patterns in three areas of Canada. It contrasts the behaviour of drivers in the Maritimes, in Montreal, and in Calgary, in order to make a point about how attitudes in various places inform behaviour. People in these areas have in common the fact that they all drive; in contrast, they drive differently according to the area in which they live. It is important to note that the paragraph above considers only one aspect of driving (behaviour at traffic lights). If you wanted to consider two or more aspects, you would probably need more than one paragraph. Paragraph Development by Process Paragraph development by process involves a straightforward step-by-step description. Those of you in the sciences will recognise it as the formula followed in the method section of a lab experiment. Process description often follows a chronological sequence: The first point to establish is the grip of the hand on the rod. This should be about half-way up the cork handle, absolutely firm and solid, but not tense or rigid. All four fingers are curved around the handle, the little finger, third finger and middle finger contributing most of the firmness by pressing the cork solidly into the fleshy part of the palm, near the heel of the hand. The forefinger supports and steadies the grip but supplies its own firmness against the AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 7 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS thumb, which should be along the upper side of the handle and somewhere near the top of the grip. from Roderick Haig-Brown, Fly Casting) The topic sentence establishes that the author will use this paragraph to describe the process of establishing the grip of the hand on the rod, and this is exactly what he does, point by point, with little abstraction. Paragraph Development by Combination Very often, a single paragraph will contain development by a combinat ion of methods. It may begin with a brief comparison, for example, and move on to provide detailed descriptions of the subjects being compared. A process analysis might include a brief history of the process in question. Many paragraphs include lists of examples: The broad range of positive characteristics used to define males could be used to define females too, but they are not. At its entry for woman Websters Third provides a list of qualities considered distinctive of womanhood: Gentleness, affection, and domesticity or on the other hand fickleness, superficiality, and folly. Among the qualities considered distinctive of manhood listed in the entry for man, no negative attributes detract from the courage, strength, and vigor the definers associate with males. According to this dictionary, womanish means unsuitable to a man or to a strong character of either sex. This paragraph is a good example of one which combines a comparison and contrast of contemporary notions of manliness and womanliness with an extended list of examples. Paragraph Development: Coherence by S. Marques, Kentridge High School Coherence is the orderly presentation of ideas. Paragraphs are made coherent by arranging the supporting details in an order that will be clear to the reader and by using transitional words and phrases to introduce and connect those details. If the reader says to herself, What are these sentences doing together in this order in this paragraph? , then that paragraph probably lacks coherence. Coherence in a paragraph depends chiefly on ordering the sentences according to a logic that is easy to follow. One sentence should logically, sensibly, grow out of the preceding sentence, as if the writers thoughts are flowing on and on. Often the plan of development is so easy that readers may be unaware of it. Order of Importance Order of importance is a way of organizing ideas according to the degree of their value, power, authority, interest, or quality. A paragraph may begin with the least important item and progress to the most important (ascending order), thus building the readers interest. Alternatively, the most-toleast-important order (descending order) may be used if the writer wants to arouse the readers attention immediately. AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 8 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS Order of Generality Order of generality is a way of arranging ideas according to their breadth or scope. When a paragraph is organized from the general to the particular, ideas are presented that are increasingly narrow or specific. The paragraph might begin by identifying a major issue, continue by focusing on just part of the issue, and conclude by giving examples of the part. On the other hand, when a paragraph is organized from particular to general, increasingly broad ideas are presented. Such a paragraph might begin with a concrete observation, expand the observation to an idea, and enlarge the idea to a rule or general statement. Comparison and Contrast Comparison and contrast are useful methods for developing a topic that consists of two or more similar items. When items are compared, the writer shows how they are alike. When items are contrasted, the writer is able to show how the items differ. A paragraph may be developed through comparison, or contrast, or both. There are two main ways to develop a paragraph by comparison or contrast. One way is to alternate details, following each point about one item with a corresponding point about the other. The pattern of this kind of development is AB AB AB. The second way is to present all of the details about one item before taking up the other. This pattern is AAA BBB. Whichever approach is selected, make certain that the treatment is balancedthat every point of comparison or contrast is applied to both items. Cause and Effect When a paragraph is organized by cause and effect, the writer is providing an explanation of the relationship between two items. A cause produces a result; an effect is a result of a cause. To claim that one event or condition causes another is to say that the first brings about the second. Organizing a paragraph by cause and effect can be accomplished in two ways: (1) Begin the paragraph with an effect and then follow with the causes of the effect. 2) Begin with a cause and follow with its effects. If the writers objective is show why something exists or occurs, then effectsto-causes is the better choice. If the writers goal is to show consequences, then the causes-to-effects order is more appropriate. Paragraph Coherence The three qualities by which a paragraph is evaluated are unity, development, and coherence. We have alr eady discussed unity and development, leaving only coherence. However, coherence is a quality which many writers have trouble achieving in their paragraphs. In fact, coherence may be the most difficult quality for most students to achieve in their writing. Coherence refers to how well the contents of a paragraph hang together. Achieving unity in your paragraphs is a good start on coherence as is having the substantive supporting detail that helps you to achieve paragraph development. However, coherence goes beyond achieving unity or avoiding digressions. Coherence refers to how the individual sentencestheir order within the paragraph and their individual structuresrelate to one another in shaping the paragraph. In order to achieve paragraph coherence, you must look at a number of different elements in your paragraph: AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 9 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS the organizational pattern the use of transitional devices the repetition of key words or related terms, including pronouns the occurrence of parallel syntactic structures Connections Between Sentences by S. Marques, Kentridge High School A good paragraph has unity: All the sentences have a relationship to one another and to the main idea. The connection between sentences in a paragraph can be shown in several ways, but principally by the use of transitional words and phrases. Transitional words and phrases may be conjunctions, such as and, but, and however, or explanatory expressions, such as for instance, on the other hand, and so on. Transitional words and phrases act as signals. They give directions. They tell where the paragraph is going. In this sense, transitional words and phrases also act to hold sentences together, achieving unity. Here are some of the most commonly used connecting words and phrases and the purposes they serve. Purpose Connecting Word/Phrase To add another idea furthermore, in ddition, also, moreover, likewise, similarly first, finally, meanwhile, eventually, next, subsequently, To arrange ideas in order or time ultimately, at the same time To add an illustration or for example, for instance, in other words explanation hence, therefore, thus, accordingly, in brief, in conclusion, To conclude or sum up consequently To connect two contrasting ideas; on the other hand, however, yet, conversely, nonetheless, to differeniate ideas nev ertheless, rather, although, on the contrary indeed, naturally, of course, certainly, undoubtedly, admittedly, To emphasize or confirm plainly Logical Connectives Additionally, the logical development chosen for the paragraph can be made very clear to the reader by the words used to connect one sentence to the next. These words are often referred to as logical connectives because they make clear not only the order but also the meaning of the writing. Each organizational pattern has its own logical connectives. Order of importance may be emphasized with transitional words and expressions such as first, a second factor, equally important, furthermore, of major concern, finally, least important, and most important. Transitional expressions such as equally, similarly, just as, however, on the other hand, despite, and otherwise may be used to emphasize comparison or contrast. Words particularly suited to writing about causes and effects are as a result, because, consequently, and therefore. AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 10 Source: Internet