Natural Law Theorists And Positivist Theorists - 1850 Words

To what degree are natural law theorists and positivist theorists accurate in terms of the idea that ‘an unjust law cannot be a valid law’? In this essay i will assess the accuracy of this statement and attempt to define the concept of the validity of law in relation to both natural law theorists and positivist theorists. For the purpose of this essay I will define validity of a law as †Having legal force; effective or binding† (The Free Dictionary). The main reason for the continual debate between both theories is that they are both very similar although they may appear to be at contrary ends of each spectrum. Natural law theorists believe that in order for a law to be valid it must have some moral principle therefore if laws which are enacted in statues have no authority, they are not moral. Whereas positivists support and emphasise the importance of a division between morality and law. I will begin by outlining both theories. I will then move onto asses the accuracy of the following statement, ‘An unjust law cannot be a valid law’ this includes establishing the similarities and differences of both theories; in order to do this effectively it is essential that a thorough understanding of both theories has been developed. Finally I will summarise my findings, An unjust law cannot be a valid law - true or false? The first question we need to address in order to be able to assess this statement is - what is natural law? The basic concept of natural law is that in order for aShow MoreRelatedLaw And Morality From The View Of Natural Law Theorists And Legal Positivists Essay1514 Words   |  7 PagesLaw and morality can be defined by the interpretation of the individual who is referring to it. If the natural law theorists interpret the connection between law and morality a certain way then legal positivists will interpret it another way. So this means that they will never have the exact same view, it could be slightly similar but never the same. Every philosopher, no matter if they are a natural law theorist or a legal positivist theorist they will think what they want to believe because theyRead MorePositivism : The Ruling Theory Of Law944 Words   |  4 Pagesjuristic thought, which includes such luminaries of philosophy as Thomas Hobbes ( 1588-1679), Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), John Austin (1790-1859) and HLA Hart (1907-1992). Philosopher Ronald Dworkin once described legal positivism as the ruling theory of law. Since the time of Bentham and Austin legal positivism was the dominant theory and was held by most legal scholars in one way or another and was also the working theory of most legal practitioner’s. Although recognized as a dominating jurisprudentialRead MoreThe Distinction Between Natural Law And Legal Positivism Essay1747 Words   |  7 Pagesdeliberate, scrutinize and define the distinction between natural law and legal positivism. I will make distinctions regarding advantages and disadvantages of the definitions of the theories of natural law and legal positivism. By focussing on slavery as an example I will be looking at various theorists and their theories thereby attempting to make sense and find clarity in this regard. Furthermore to understand the aspects of natural law and legal positivism, one has to understand the theories ofRead MoreJurisprudence- Critical Discussion of the Speluncean Explorers1044 Words   |  5 PagesAs a positivist, the law is unambiguous and direct. Firstly what is positivism? According to positivism, there is nothing intrinsically moral about the law. A law enacted by a legislature can be evil and immoral; there is no fundamental connection between the two. Whether what they did was right or wrong is not a matter for a judge. A judge is educated and skilled to discern legality from morality. According to John Austin, legal positivism is the actual continuation and content of the law dependingRead MoreEssay on Justice1493 Words   |  6 Pagesachieve it’. Justice is something that we all want from a Law and believe should be an integral part in any legal system. However, the meaning of Justice is very difficult to define. There are many aspects of justice that we may question about; i.e. is a particular law just? Is the legal system just? Much of the issue of justice is very controversial and raises questions such as whether the combination of Law and system produce a just result? Justice has a definitionRead MoreThe Case Of Brown V. Board Of Education Of Topeka1694 Words   |  7 Pagesjustified in ruling in the manner they did. So, natural law theorists like St. Thomas Aquinas and John Finnis, legal positivists like H. L. A. Hart, and philosopher Ronald Dworkin, while having fundamental differences in their beliefs of what law is, how it is determined, and how cases are adjudicated, would still arrive at the fact that the ruling in Brown v. Board of Education was legally justified. Natural law theory is essentially the belief that law is derived from humans’ unique ability to reasonRead MoreLegal Positivists And Natural Law1966 Words   |  8 Pages‘An unjust law cannot be a valid law’ In the light of Natural Law and Positivist theories, assess the accuracy of the above statement. To what extent are legal positivists and natural law theorists accurate in terms of the idea that ‘an unjust law cannot be a valid law’? In this essay i will attempt to define the concept of the validity of law in relation to both natural law theorists and positivist theorists. For the purpose of this essay I will define validity of a law as †Having legal force; effectiveRead MoreThe Theory Of Criminal Behavior1333 Words   |  6 Pagesunderstand the cause of criminal behavior and crime. Some examples of these theories are Classical Theory, Deterrence Theory, Positivist Theory, Strain Theory, and Social Learning Theory. The Classical Theory developed by Cesare Beccaria, introduces the idea of free will. Acknowledging people are capable of possessing free will introduces the freedom people have to choose to be a law abiding citizen or to be delinquent. The Classical Theory was derived from the Classical School which also included a theoryRead MoreMorality Vs. Morality : Morality And Morality1729 Words   |  7 PagesAlthough law and morality are two separate issues it is evident that morality plays a crucial role in the law. Dr. Jà ¼rgen Habermas stated â€Å"law is internally related†¦ to morality† . The idea of law is not that it must be moral but that it provides a system to allow people to live together peacefully in a society. However, as much as it is debated, it is apparent that in order for human civilisation to work laws must generally be moral. Natural law is a theory that emphasises the role of morality inRead MoreThe Nature Of People s Beliefs1660 Words   |  7 Pageseven the ideas of the law are exempt from this occurrence. Since the spoken word, hundreds of philosophers have defined law in different ways. Seeing law in different ways people can come to different conclusions about specific cases. The Fugitive Slave Law was a controversial law in American history. The Fugitive Slave Law allowed slave-owners to capture their slaves who have fled North to free states. In United States v Morris, the emancipators challenged the Fugitive Slave Law in Boston. A group

Benefits of Adoption - 940 Words

Adoption is a wonderful and rewarding way to grow a family. When you open your heart and house to a child through adoption, you make an everlasting commitment. It is an important decision that requires thought and discussion among the entire family. Adopting a child is without a doubt a life changing experience that requires patience and dedication. This experience allows families to change a child’s life who one day may have thought that they would never be loved. Parents who adopt from infertility have already felt what loss and disappointment feels like due to not being able to bear a child. Many times these same parents have experienced prior miscarriages or even unsuccessful fertility clinics. For them, the opportunity to adopt is a†¦show more content†¦Ultimately, they learn to be comfortable with themselves. (Child Dev 1984). In conclusion, adopting is absolutely something to consider. The most important thing to remember is that every child needs a safe and lo ving home. Any family who believes that they can provide security, love and safety to a child in need should consider taking this role. It is an unforgettable, life changing experience not only for the parent but for the child as well. Parents have the opportunity to provide that child a normal life which would otherwise be missing. Some researchers say that adopted children who were once in a foster care tend to misbehave or act a certain way in order to create a feeling of rejection, anger, pain and abandonment in their parents. This testing behavior may actually indicate that the child feels comfortable enough with the parent to communicate his or her own true feelings. (Welf Info Gateway 2012). This is a positive reaction which only solidifies the strong bond that parents will be able to attain with the new member of the family. The benefits of adopting are endless, and will only gain love in a child’s heart. Parents will absolutely bring tremendous joy to that childâ₠¬â„¢s life. One thing is true, and this is that no one will ever know unless they experience this. References http://ocfs.ny.gov/adopt/process.asp http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/09/nsap/chartbook/chartbook.cfm?id=28Show MoreRelatedThe Many Benefits of Adoption2071 Words   |  9 Pages When the average American citizen today thinks about the concept of adoption, what images are typically the first that come to mind? Although different people are sure to have equally as different experiences in this field, one picture continues to remain the most commonly-accepted. This image consists of a man and a woman who cannot have children of their own, a newborn baby, and a single mother who will certainly be unable to provide for the infant due to her young age, lack of financial supportRead MoreAdoption Is Not The Only Party Who Benefits From An Open Adoption1229 Words   |  5 PagesAn adoptee is not the only party who benefits from an open adoption. The adoptee, the birthparents, and the adopt ive parents all have something to gain from an open adoption. Plenty of information about adoption is misunderstood or not known at all. Numerous individuals do not know the difference between a closed adoption and an open adoption and the pros/cons that accompany these different types of adoption. â€Å"Confidential (closed) adoption is where the birthparents often do not know the identityRead MoreBenefits And Risks Of Mass Digital Adoption994 Words   |  4 Pagesside – developed at Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), UC Berkeley, and LSE– reminds me to look at patterns in a system rather than in isolation. Combining my macro and development interests, I crafted a research agenda to explore the benefits and risks of mass digital adoption. For this proposal I received the ‘La Caixa’ Fellowship – Spain’s NSF-equivalent – to fund my future graduate studies in Economics, which I hope to have the chance to pursue at MIT. Preparing for Spain’s Economics Olympiad duringRead MoreShould Gay Adoption Benefit Children? Essay2105 Words   |  9 PagesGay Adoption Benefits Children Every single child deserve the chance to be part of a caring, nurturing family. Whether the family has a single mother, single father, or two parents. There are many opportunities for individuals to become the legal guardian (or guardians) of a child. Those opportunities, however, are not as easily accessed for gay and lesbian prospective parents as they are for straight people, and many times, these opportunities are completely prohibited by state laws. Recently,Read MoreOpen Domestic Adoption Benefits versus Risks740 Words   |  3 PagesOpen Domestic adoption Benefits vs. Risks â€Å"However [Parenthood] comes to you, it’s a miracle† (Morton). The definition to â€Å"Open adoption is an adoption in which the child is aware that he or she was adopted and one in which he or she may or may not have contact with the Birth parents† (Sember). Although Open adoption has its benefits and risks, open adoption does significant things for children in their lives, open adoption should be the first choice for Americans who are seeking to adopt becauseRead MoreEssay on The Benefits of Uniform Adoption in Public Schools1278 Words   |  6 Pagesparticipated was because people believe that they are violating the freedom of choice when enforcing this mandatory uniform policy; yet problems such as bullying and segregation, emerged in these schools. Some people still think uniforms have no benefits at all. However, all public school students should be required to wear uniforms because it would improve the academic performance, reduce the violent behavior s based on appearance judgment, and provide less stress for both parents and students. Read MoreThe Perceived Benefits of E-Commerce the Internet Adoption Strategies for Smes1399 Words   |  6 PagesLiterature Review 1 The Perceived Benefits of E-Commerce The Internet Adoption Strategies for SMEs Cheng Peng North Carolina State University Professor Mordzak FLE 101 Dec.2, 2011 Literature Review 2 Introduction Due to the popularity and rapid expansion of the Internet and network technology, electronic commerce (e-commerce) has become a major activity in contemporary business operations. Today, enormous business activities are conducted online. People go online to sell and buy bothRead MoreGay Adoption And The United States1412 Words   |  6 Pagesit.What kind of impact do gay couples have on adoption agencies in the United States? â€Å"An estimated 65,500 adopted children are living with a lesbian or gay† parent (Lifelong Adoptions)​.†Ã¢â‚¬â€¹There are 1 million lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender parents raising about 2 million children in the U.S† (Why Gay Parents Are Good Parents). ​Even though people believe gay adoption will cause children to act different Gay adoption positively affects adoption agencies because most kids end up with gay couplesRead MoreEmpirical Literature On The Challenges1722 Words   |  7 Pages2.3. Empirical Literature on the Challenges in Using Improved Cookstoves Despite the potential benefits and the efforts of national, regional and global initiatives, programs and projects the rate of improved cookstoves acceptance has fallen behind the expectation due to different factors (Puzzolo, 2013; Berkeley Air Monitoring Group, 2012; Lewis Pattanayak, 2012; GACC, 2010; WHO, 2009; Barnes et al., 1994). To identify reasons affecting the acceptance of improved cookstoves studies have been conductedRead MoreEssay on Electronic Health Record Business Case Research Analysis1098 Words   |  5 Pages Even though a benefit of reduction in varying costs due to efficiency has been speculated by prior research, the huge financial investment has deterred many organizations from moving forward with EHR adoption. Physicians and organizations have a hard time building a business case for ambulatory EHR systems for several direct and indirect reasons dealing with revenue and benefits. In the article, Exploring the Business Case for Ambulatory Electronic Health Record System Adoption, the authors’ aim

Goth and Death Music free essay sample

The artists present themselves from a lifeless position to display the pain women cause. Shes the blade and Im just paper a lyric from the band Sugarcoat, shows the emotion that the men place in their lyrics. The woman is the one that cuts him up; the woman is the one who is causing the problems. Security is an American rock band from Santa Barbara, California formed in 1998. The band currently consists of Tim Poignant who sings lead vocals, and plays rhythm attar, Airing Older who plays bass guitar, and sings backing vocals, Marko Descants who plays lead guitar, and Kenny Livingston who plays drums. We will write a custom essay sample on Goth and Death Music or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page A band that shows the portrayal of men as the victim in the game of love is Taking Back Sunday. Taking Back Sunday is a rock band from Imitatively, NY, formed in 1 999 by guitarist Eddie Rexes. Current members of the band are Adam Lazar who sings lead vocals, John Nolan who plays and sings lead guitar, back-up vocals, Eddie Rexes who plays rhythm guitar, Shawn Cooper who plays bass guitar and Mark OConnell who plays drums. They fit right in with normal Memo genre, preaching Dont call my name out your window Im leaving.Im sick of writing every song about you. Every time lead singer Adam sings this line he cries on stage. Have you ever heard of a genre of music so extreme it has been blamed for everything from the burning of churches to the murder of fellow band members? Well that music is commonly known as Death Metal. Because of the extreme measures set by the bands most of the bands are banned from not only touring in some countries but also from heir records being sold for being deemed too extreme for the general public. With music about death, Destruction and overthrowing popular religions, its not surprising that it is sometimes considered one of the most gruesome, heaviest and most explicit genres of metal. Lamb of God is an American death metal band from Richmond, Virginia. Formed in 1994, the group consists of vocalist Randy Blithe, guitarists Mark Morton, Willie Adler, bassist John Campbell, and drummer Chris Adler. The band is considered to be a part of the New Wave of American He. Y Metal movement.Since its formation, Lamb of God has released six studio albums, one live album, one compilation album and three DVDs. Lamb of God is an all-around metal band and sings more than death metal and for that reason I like them more the any other death metal band. Rather than other death metal bands such as My Dying Bride that sing only death metal. My Dying Bride whos band members are Aaron who sings vocals, Andrew and Hams who play the guitar, Lena who plays bass, and Shawn who plays both keyboard and violin.My Dying Bride was formed by Aaron, Andy, Calvin and Rick in the summer of 1 990, and after only six months of writing together released the now legendary demo Towards the Sinister. Progress continued apace with the release of their first seven single God Is Alone for the small French label Listenable. The single sold out almost immediately causing eager whispers in the underground, bringing them to the attention of Peaceable Records, who offered the band a deal. This band is disturbing and tasteless in my opinion and only sings this type of metal.

Writing Academic Paragraphs Essay Example

Writing Academic Paragraphs Paper University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS Writing Effective Paragraphs A paragraph should be unified, coherent, and well developed. Paragraphs are unified around a main point, and all sentences in the paragraph should clearly relate to that point in some way. The paragraphs main idea should be supported with specific information that develops or discusses the main idea in greater detail. Creating a Topic Sentence The topic sentence expresses the main point in a paragraph. You may create your topic sentence by considering the details or examples you will discuss. What unifies these examples? What do your examples have in common? Reach a conclusion and write that conclusion first. If it helps, think of writing backwardsfrom generalization to support instead of from examples to a conclusion. If you know what you main point will be, write that as clearly as possible. Then focus on key words in your topic sentence and try to explain them more fully. Keep asking yourself How? or Why? or What examples can I provide to convince a reader? . After you have added your supporting information, review the topic sentence to see that it still indicates the direction of your writing. Purposes of Topic Sentences †¢ †¢ †¢ We will write a custom essay sample on Writing Academic Paragraphs specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Writing Academic Paragraphs specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Writing Academic Paragraphs specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer To state the main point of a paragraph To give the reader a sense of direction (indicate what information will follow) To summarize the paragraphs main point Often appear as the first or second sentences of a paragraph Rarely appear at the end of the paragraph Placement of Topic Sentences †¢ †¢ Supporting a Topic Sentence with Details To support a topic sentence, consider some of the possible ways that provide details. To develop a paragraph, use one or more of these: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Add examples Tell a story that illustrates the point youre making Discuss a process Compare and contrast Use analogies (eg. X is similar to Y because. . . ) Discuss cause and effect Define your terms Reasons for beginning a new paragraph †¢ †¢ To show youre switching to a new idea To highlight an important point by putting it at the beginning or end of your paragraph 1 Source: Internet AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS To show a change in time or place To emphasize a contrast To indicate changing speakers in a dialogue To give readers an opportunity to pause To break up a dense text Ways of Arranging Information within or between paragraphs †¢ †¢ †¢ Order of time (chronology) Order of space (descriptions of a location or scene) Order of climax (building toward a conclusion) Order of importance (from least to most important or from most to least important) Writing Effective Paragraphs The Topic Sentence by S. Marques, Kentridge High School A paragraph is a group of sentences dealing with a single topic or idea. Usually, one sentence, called the topic sentence, states the main idea of the paragraph. All the other sentences are related to this topic sentence. They further explain or support the main idea. The Topic Sentences Function The topic sentence of a paragraph is like a contract between writer and reader. The writer is saying, in effect, I have an idea I want to explain to you. The reader is answering, All right, explain it to me. For the writer to hold to the contract, he or she must explain the idea stated in the topic sentence. Therefore, the topic sentence controls the content of the paragraph. Judging Topic Sentences A topic sentence makes a general statement that is wider in its scope than the rest of the sentences in the paragraph. A good topic sentence is broad enough to be developed by specific details. However, if a topic sentence is too general, the remainder of the paragraph will have to be either extremely long in order to give an adequate explanation of the idea, or it will have to contain nothing but more general statements. A topic sentence can be evaluated by asking a few questions. 1. Does the topic sentence present oneand only onetopic? 2. Is the topic sentence an overgeneralization? 3. Does the sentence give strong direction to the whole paragraph? Usually, it is difficult to say that a topic sentence is good or bad. It is possible, however, to say that one topic sentence is better than another. AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 2 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS Placement of the Topic Sentence In general, a sensible plan is to tell readers what the paragraph is intended to discuss before it is discussed. Thus, the common practice in writing a paragraph is to begin with the topic sentence and to follow it with supporting sentences. The topic sentence serves the special purpose of announcing the paragraphs topic. Using this approach to placement of the topic sentence, the reader can more easily identify the central point that the writer is making. Developing Paragraphs Well developed paragraphs support their topic sentences with concrete details, lively examples and illustrations, or well developed, clearly worded arguments. The relation between the specific, concrete detailsthe facts you are basing your opinion onand your opinion must be clearly spelled out for your reader. Forms of Supporting Material In order to hold your readers attention, you must give them something worth reading. Essays containing paragraphs that are not adequately developed simply waste your readers time. Therefore, so as to keep your audience, you must bring in enough specific detail to keep the reading interesting. In fact, your goal should be to capture on paper your memories (narration), mental images (description), or reasoning processes (exposition and argumentation) in such a carefully detailed and ordered fashion that your readers cannot help but recreate the mental images or reasoning processes in their own minds. There are a number of different ways in which you can develop a paragraph. The most common are explained below. Explanation An explanation is an attempt at making a term, concept, process, or proposal clear and intelligible. An explanation may show the relationship between the whole and its parts. Often, explanation is followed by a specific example or illustration. Comparison and Contrast Comparison attempts to help the reader understand a new concept by likening it to one that the reader already knows. Contrast may be used to explain how the new concept is different from the old one, how it has its own identity. Comparison and contrast may be used alone or in combination. In the examples below, X indicates the new concept while Y represents the familiar concept: †¢ Comparison used alone is really analogy. Analogies often take the form of X is like Y in that . . . . †¢ Contrast is often used to differentiate between two closely related or outwardly similar ideas. 3 Source: Internet AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS Sometimes contrast is used to describe something by explaining what it is not. Contrast sometimes take the form of Unlike Y, X does not . . . . †¢ Comparison and Contrast together are very often the best way to convey a new idea to your readers, relating the new idea to something your readers are already familiar with and then explaining how it is NOT the same as that more familiar concept. Keep in mind that neither comparison nor contrast will work if you are not relating the new concept to one that your readers already understand. Therefore, it is important to define your audience and know who they are and what they care about. Illustration, specific instance and example An illustration is a narrative example, a story exemplifying the idea that you are trying to express. An illustration should have concrete details, all of which support the main idea you are expressing. Unlike specific instances and examples, which are usually conveyed in one sentence or sometimes in just a phrase, illustrations may make up an entire paragraph. Illustrations may be factualrecounting a true storyor hypothetical. Hypothetical illustrations present a possible event that could happen in the future if certain actions are not taken or convey a possible scenario that could have happened in the past if certain actions had not been taken. To be effective, illustrations, examples, and specific instances must be †¢ †¢ †¢ clearly related to the idea in your writing that you are trying to support reasonable and realistic, not the exception, not science fiction vivid in detail Choose your illustrations, specific instances, and examples carefully, applying the above criteria. Statistics Statistics are figures that show trends in the population. Statistics from surveys often indicate how different segments of the population differ from each other in opinion. In addition, statistics can indicate such tendencies as how people react to a new drug, which segment of the population has the greatest tendency toward a certain illness, and what the most common manner of death is for particular segments of the population. Statistics can help you to support your opinion by showing how great a problem is in the population in general or in a segment of the population or by indicating trends across time. Authoritative opinion and personal testimony Another way to support your thesis or topic sentence is through the use of authoritative opinion or personal testimony. A person qualifies as an authority on a subject either through depth of education AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 4 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS or through depth of experience, preferably both. Thus, the PhD in Sociology may be an authority on poverty through years of field research and reading in the discipline, but the woman who has reared her children successfully despite an income below the poverty line is also an authority on poverty. In rder for the authoritatave opinion or expert testimony to be acceptable to your audience and an effective method of support for your main idea, you must establish the following for your audience: 1. The person whose opinion or testimony you are using qualifies as an expert. 2. The information is based on your experts first-hand knowledge. (If your expert cites another source, try to go to that original source. ) NOTE: A well developed topic sentence paragraph will be much longer than most of the paragraphs you are reading on these web pages. Writing for the Internet is usually very different from traditional academic writing. For example, on the Internet, you will find capital letters in odd places for emphasis. ) One primary difference in these two types of writing lies in the length of paragraphs. Paragraphs tend to be much shorter in e-mail messages and on web pages. In your final drafts for this class, you should write fully developed paragraphs, which are at least eight sentences long. I do not generally care for counting words, pages, or sentences in student writing, but for paragraph development, Ive found that fewer than eight sentences generally do not constitute a well developed paragraph according to academic writing standards. On the other hand, having eight sentences in a paragraph does not assure that you have a fully developed paragraph. Paragraph development always refers to content, but chances are good that, if a paragraph looks skimpy on the page, it probably is underdeveloped. Paragraph Development: Coordination and Subordination of Details Effective paragraphs include specific facts and details that support the main idea. Since the details are more specific than the main idea, they are considered subordinate to it. But the details themselves may be equally specific. If so, we say that they are coordinate. However, some details may be more specific than others. A detail that is more specific than another is considered subordinate to it. Thus, all the details in a paragraph are subordinate to the main ideas, but some details are coordinate (equal to others), and some are subordinate to others (more specific than others). Coordinate Details One way to develop the main idea of a paragraph is to use all coordinate, or equally specific, details. For example, the supporting details in the paragraph below are coordinate. (1) Mexico offers visitors a world of contrasts. (2) Its pyramids and ancient ruins give us a glimpse of he past while its modern cities provide us with the best of todays technology. (3) Its mountains offer cool weather and majestic peaks while, only a few miles away, its beaches tempt us with brilliant sun and white sand. (4) Its elegant restaurants serve the most sophisticated continental cuisine while, across the street or down the block, sidewalk vendors sell the simples t of native foods. (5) Thus the traveler to Mexico is faced with a series of delightful decisions. AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 5 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS In this paragraph, the main idea, which is stated in sentence (1), is supported by three equally specific, or coordinate, supporting details: sentences (2), (3), and (4). Sentence (5) concludes the paragraph and reinforces the main idea. This paragraph can be diagrammed as shown below. Main idea (sentence 1) Coordinate detail (sentence 2) Coordinate detail (sentence 3) Coordinate detail (sentence 4) Conclusion (sentence 5) (1) Mexico offers visitors a world of contrasts. (2) Its pyramids and ancient ruins give us a glimpse of the past while its modern cities provide us with the best of todays technology. 3) Its mountains offer cool weather and majestic peaks while, only a few miles away, its beaches tempt us with brilliant sun and white sand. (4) Its elegant restaurants serve the most sophisticated continental cuisine while, across the street or down the block, sidewalk vendors sell the simplest of native foods. (5) Thus the traveler to Mexico is faced with a series of delightful dec isions. Developing Unified and Coherent Paragraphs A paragraph is unified when every sentence develops the point made in the topic sentence . It must have a single focus and it must contain no irrelevant facts. Every sentence must contribute to the paragraph by explaining, exemplifying, or expanding the topic sentence. In order to determine whether a paragraph is well developed or not, ask yourself: What main point am I trying to convey here? (topic sentence) and then Does every sentence clearly relate to this idea? There are several ways in which you can build good, clear paragraphs. This section will discuss three of the most common types of paragraph structure: development by detail, comparison and contrast, and process. Finally, it will suggest that most paragraphs are built of a combination of development strategies. Paragraph Development by Details This is the most common and easiest form of paragraph development: you simply expand on a general topic sentence using specific examples or illustrations. Look at the following paragraph (you may have encountered it before): Work tends to be associated with non-work-specific environments, activities, and schedules. If asked what space is reserved for learning, many students would suggest the classroom, the lab or the library. What about the kitchen? The bedroom? In fact, any room in which a student habitually studies becomes a learning space, or a place associated with thinking. Some people need to engage in sports or other physical activity before they can work successfully. Being sedentary seems to inspire others. Although most classes are scheduled between 8:30 and 22:00, some students do their best work before the sun rises, some after it sets. Some need a less flexible schedule than others, while a very few can sit and not rise until their task is completed. Some students work quickly and efficiently, while others cannot produce anything AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 6 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS without much dust and heat. The topic sentence makes a general claim: that school work tends not to be associated only with school. The rest of the sentences provide various illustrations of this argument. They are organised around the three categories, environment, activities, and schedules, enumerated in the topic sentence. The details provide the concrete examples which your reader will use to evaluate the credibility of your topic sentence. Paragraph Development by Comparison and Contrast You should consider developing your paragraph by comparison and contrast when you are describing two or more things which have something, but not everything, in common. You may choose to compare either point by point (X is big, Y is little; X and Y are both purple. ) or subject by subject (X is big and purple; Y is small and purple. ). Consider, for example, the following paragraph: Although the interpretation of traffic signals may seem highly standardized, close observation reveals regional variations across this country, distinguishing the East Coast from Central Canada and the West as surely as dominant dialects or political inclinations. In Montreal, a flashing red traffic light instructs drivers to careen even more wildly through intersections heavily populated with pedestrians and oncoming vehicles. In startling contrast, an amber light in Calgary warns drivers to scream to a halt on the off chance that there might be a pedestrian within 500 meters who might consider crossing at some unspecified time within the current day. In my home town in New Brunswick, finally, traffic lights (along with painted lines and posted speed limits) do not apply to tractors, all terrain vehicles, or pickup trucks, which together account for most vehicles on the road. In fact, were any observant Canadian dropped from an alien space vessel at an unspecified intersection anywhere in this vast land, he or she could almost certainly orient him-or-herself according to the surrounding traffic patterns. This paragraph compares traffic patterns in three areas of Canada. It contrasts the behaviour of drivers in the Maritimes, in Montreal, and in Calgary, in order to make a point about how attitudes in various places inform behaviour. People in these areas have in common the fact that they all drive; in contrast, they drive differently according to the area in which they live. It is important to note that the paragraph above considers only one aspect of driving (behaviour at traffic lights). If you wanted to consider two or more aspects, you would probably need more than one paragraph. Paragraph Development by Process Paragraph development by process involves a straightforward step-by-step description. Those of you in the sciences will recognise it as the formula followed in the method section of a lab experiment. Process description often follows a chronological sequence: The first point to establish is the grip of the hand on the rod. This should be about half-way up the cork handle, absolutely firm and solid, but not tense or rigid. All four fingers are curved around the handle, the little finger, third finger and middle finger contributing most of the firmness by pressing the cork solidly into the fleshy part of the palm, near the heel of the hand. The forefinger supports and steadies the grip but supplies its own firmness against the AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 7 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS thumb, which should be along the upper side of the handle and somewhere near the top of the grip. from Roderick Haig-Brown, Fly Casting) The topic sentence establishes that the author will use this paragraph to describe the process of establishing the grip of the hand on the rod, and this is exactly what he does, point by point, with little abstraction. Paragraph Development by Combination Very often, a single paragraph will contain development by a combinat ion of methods. It may begin with a brief comparison, for example, and move on to provide detailed descriptions of the subjects being compared. A process analysis might include a brief history of the process in question. Many paragraphs include lists of examples: The broad range of positive characteristics used to define males could be used to define females too, but they are not. At its entry for woman Websters Third provides a list of qualities considered distinctive of womanhood: Gentleness, affection, and domesticity or on the other hand fickleness, superficiality, and folly. Among the qualities considered distinctive of manhood listed in the entry for man, no negative attributes detract from the courage, strength, and vigor the definers associate with males. According to this dictionary, womanish means unsuitable to a man or to a strong character of either sex. This paragraph is a good example of one which combines a comparison and contrast of contemporary notions of manliness and womanliness with an extended list of examples. Paragraph Development: Coherence by S. Marques, Kentridge High School Coherence is the orderly presentation of ideas. Paragraphs are made coherent by arranging the supporting details in an order that will be clear to the reader and by using transitional words and phrases to introduce and connect those details. If the reader says to herself, What are these sentences doing together in this order in this paragraph? , then that paragraph probably lacks coherence. Coherence in a paragraph depends chiefly on ordering the sentences according to a logic that is easy to follow. One sentence should logically, sensibly, grow out of the preceding sentence, as if the writers thoughts are flowing on and on. Often the plan of development is so easy that readers may be unaware of it. Order of Importance Order of importance is a way of organizing ideas according to the degree of their value, power, authority, interest, or quality. A paragraph may begin with the least important item and progress to the most important (ascending order), thus building the readers interest. Alternatively, the most-toleast-important order (descending order) may be used if the writer wants to arouse the readers attention immediately. AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 8 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS Order of Generality Order of generality is a way of arranging ideas according to their breadth or scope. When a paragraph is organized from the general to the particular, ideas are presented that are increasingly narrow or specific. The paragraph might begin by identifying a major issue, continue by focusing on just part of the issue, and conclude by giving examples of the part. On the other hand, when a paragraph is organized from particular to general, increasingly broad ideas are presented. Such a paragraph might begin with a concrete observation, expand the observation to an idea, and enlarge the idea to a rule or general statement. Comparison and Contrast Comparison and contrast are useful methods for developing a topic that consists of two or more similar items. When items are compared, the writer shows how they are alike. When items are contrasted, the writer is able to show how the items differ. A paragraph may be developed through comparison, or contrast, or both. There are two main ways to develop a paragraph by comparison or contrast. One way is to alternate details, following each point about one item with a corresponding point about the other. The pattern of this kind of development is AB AB AB. The second way is to present all of the details about one item before taking up the other. This pattern is AAA BBB. Whichever approach is selected, make certain that the treatment is balancedthat every point of comparison or contrast is applied to both items. Cause and Effect When a paragraph is organized by cause and effect, the writer is providing an explanation of the relationship between two items. A cause produces a result; an effect is a result of a cause. To claim that one event or condition causes another is to say that the first brings about the second. Organizing a paragraph by cause and effect can be accomplished in two ways: (1) Begin the paragraph with an effect and then follow with the causes of the effect. 2) Begin with a cause and follow with its effects. If the writers objective is show why something exists or occurs, then effectsto-causes is the better choice. If the writers goal is to show consequences, then the causes-to-effects order is more appropriate. Paragraph Coherence The three qualities by which a paragraph is evaluated are unity, development, and coherence. We have alr eady discussed unity and development, leaving only coherence. However, coherence is a quality which many writers have trouble achieving in their paragraphs. In fact, coherence may be the most difficult quality for most students to achieve in their writing. Coherence refers to how well the contents of a paragraph hang together. Achieving unity in your paragraphs is a good start on coherence as is having the substantive supporting detail that helps you to achieve paragraph development. However, coherence goes beyond achieving unity or avoiding digressions. Coherence refers to how the individual sentencestheir order within the paragraph and their individual structuresrelate to one another in shaping the paragraph. In order to achieve paragraph coherence, you must look at a number of different elements in your paragraph: AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 9 Source: Internet University of Dalat – Department of Foreign Languages †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS the organizational pattern the use of transitional devices the repetition of key words or related terms, including pronouns the occurrence of parallel syntactic structures Connections Between Sentences by S. Marques, Kentridge High School A good paragraph has unity: All the sentences have a relationship to one another and to the main idea. The connection between sentences in a paragraph can be shown in several ways, but principally by the use of transitional words and phrases. Transitional words and phrases may be conjunctions, such as and, but, and however, or explanatory expressions, such as for instance, on the other hand, and so on. Transitional words and phrases act as signals. They give directions. They tell where the paragraph is going. In this sense, transitional words and phrases also act to hold sentences together, achieving unity. Here are some of the most commonly used connecting words and phrases and the purposes they serve. Purpose Connecting Word/Phrase To add another idea furthermore, in ddition, also, moreover, likewise, similarly first, finally, meanwhile, eventually, next, subsequently, To arrange ideas in order or time ultimately, at the same time To add an illustration or for example, for instance, in other words explanation hence, therefore, thus, accordingly, in brief, in conclusion, To conclude or sum up consequently To connect two contrasting ideas; on the other hand, however, yet, conversely, nonetheless, to differeniate ideas nev ertheless, rather, although, on the contrary indeed, naturally, of course, certainly, undoubtedly, admittedly, To emphasize or confirm plainly Logical Connectives Additionally, the logical development chosen for the paragraph can be made very clear to the reader by the words used to connect one sentence to the next. These words are often referred to as logical connectives because they make clear not only the order but also the meaning of the writing. Each organizational pattern has its own logical connectives. Order of importance may be emphasized with transitional words and expressions such as first, a second factor, equally important, furthermore, of major concern, finally, least important, and most important. Transitional expressions such as equally, similarly, just as, however, on the other hand, despite, and otherwise may be used to emphasize comparison or contrast. Words particularly suited to writing about causes and effects are as a result, because, consequently, and therefore. AUTUMNTENSA- 2008 10 Source: Internet